With the help of a diverse body of scientists, ICAN has compiled a resource list of classic citations from the primary literature relating to forest canopy research.Download the complete list in PDF here.
Ecosystem Processes
Anthoni, P. M., B. E. Law, and M. H. Unsworth. 1999. Carbon and water vapor exchange of an open-canopied ponderosa pine ecosystem. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 95:151-168.
Baldocchi, D. D. 1988. A multi-layer model for estimating sulfur dioxide deposition to a deciduous oak forest canopy. Atmospheric Environment 22:869-884.
Botkin, D. B., L. G. Simpson, and R.A. Nisbet. 1993. Biomass and carbon storage of the North American deciduous forest. Biogeochemistry 20:1-17.
Buchmann, N., W.-Y. Kao, and J. R. Ehleringer. 1996. Carbon dioxide concentrations within forest canopies – variation with time, stand structure, and vegetation type. Global Change Biology 2:421-432.
Culf, A. D., G. Fisch, Y. Malhi, and C.A. Nobre. 1997. The influence of the atmospheric boundary layer on carbon dioxide concentrations over a tropical forest. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 85:149-158.
Harrington, R. A., J. H. Fownes, F.C. Meinzer and P. G. Scowcroft. 1995. Forest growth along a rainfall gradient in Hawaii: Acacia koa stand structure, productivity, foliar nutrients, and water- and nutrient-use efficiencies. Oecologia 102:277-284.
Kappelle, M., and M. E. Leal. 1996. Changes in leaf morphology and foliar nutrient status along a successional gradient in a Costa Rican upper montane Quercusforest. Biotropica 28:331-344.
Lowman, M. D., and M. W. Moffett 1993. The ecology of tropical rain forest canopies. Trees 8:104-107.
Niinemets, Ü. 1997. Distribution patterns of foliar carbon and nitrogen as affected by tree dimensions and relative light conditions in the canopy of Picea abies. Trees 11:144-154.
Richardson, B. A., M. J. Richardson, F.N. Scatena, and W.H. McDowell. 2000. Effects of nutrient availability and other elevational changes on bromeliad populations and their invertebrate communities in a humid tropical forest in Puerto Rico. Journal of Tropical Ecology 16:167-188.
Ryan, M. G., D. Binkley, and J.H. Fownes. 1997. Age-related decline in forest productivity: pattern and process. Advances in Ecological Research 27:213-262.
Sellers, P. J., R. E. Dickinson, D.A. Randall, A.K. Betts, F.G. Hall, J.A. Berry, J.G. Collatz, A.S. Denning, H.A. Mooney, C.A. Nobre, N. Sato, C.B. Field, and A. Henderson-Sellers. 1997. Modeling the exchanges of energy, water, and carbon between continents and the atmosphere. Science 275:502-509.
Sumida, A. 1993. Growth of tree species in a broadleaved secondary forest as related to the light environments of crowns. Japanese Forestry Society. Journal75:278-286.
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Forest-Atmosphere Interactions
Baldocchi, D. D., and T. P. Meyers. 1998. On using eco-physiological, micrometeorological and biogeochemical theory to evaluate carbon dioxide, water vapor and trace gas fluxes over vegetation: a perspective. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 90:1-25.
Boyce, R. L., A. J. Friedland, C. P. Chamberlain, and S. R. Poulson. 1996. Direct canopy nitrogen uptake from 15N- labeled wet deposition by mature red spruce. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 26:539-1547.
Brooks, J. R., L. B. Flanagan, G. T. Varney, and J. R. Ehleringer. 1997. Vertical gradients in photosynthetic gas exchange characteristics and refixation of respired CO 2 within boreal forest canopies. Tree Physiology 17:1-12.
Cavelier, J., D. Solis, and M. A. Jaramillo. 1996. Fog interception in montane forests across the central Cordillera of Panamá. Journal of Tropical Ecology 12:357-369.
Condit, R. 1998. Ecological implications of changes in drought patterns: shifts in forest composition in Panama. Climatic Change 39:413-427.
Constable, J. V. H., M. E. Litvak, J. P. Greenberg, and R. K. Monson. 1999. Monoterpene emission from coniferous trees in response to elevated CO 2 concentration and climate warming. Global Change Biology 5:255-267.
Dambrine, É., B. Pollier, M. Bonneau, and N. Ignatova. 1998. Use of artificial trees to assess dry deposition in spruce stands. Atmospheric Environment 32:1817-1824.
Daudet, F.-A., X. Le Roux, H. Sinoquet, and B. Adam. 1999. Wind speed and leaf boundary layer conductance variation within tree crown: consequences on leaf-to-atmosphere coupling and tree functions. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 97:171-185.
Grulke, N. E., P. R. Miller, and D. Scioli. 1996. Response of giant sequoia canopy foliage to elevated concentrations of atmospheric ozone. Tree Physiology16:575-581.
Hollinger, D. Y., F. M. Keliher, J. N. Byers, J. E. Hunt, T. M. McSeveny, and P. L. Weir. 1994. Carbon dioxide exchange between an undisturbed old-growth temperate forest and the atmosphere. Ecology 75:134-150.
Kellman, M., J. Hudson, and K. Sanmugadas. 1982. Temporal variability in atmospheric nutrient influx to a tropical ecosystem. Biotropica 14:1-9.
Lindberg, S. E., G. M. Lovett, D. D. Richter, and D. W. Johnson. 1986. Atmospheric deposition and canopy interactions of major ions in a forest. Science 231:141-145.
Potter, C. S., H. L. Ragsdale and W. T. Swank. 1991. Atmospheric deposition and foliar leaching in a regenerating southern Appalachian forest canopy. Journal of Ecology 79:97-115.
Shuttleworth, W. J. 1977. The exchange of wind-driven fog and mist between vegetation and the atmosphere. Boundary-Layer Meteorology 12:463-489.
Tenhunen, J. D., R. Valentini, B. Köstner, R. Zimmerman, and A. Granier. 1998. Variation in forest gas exchange at landscape to continental scales. Annales des Sciences Forestières 55:1-11.
Wesely, M. L. and B. B. Hicks 2000. A review of the current status of knowledge on dry deposition. Atmospheric Environment 34:2261-2282.
Yague, C. and J. L. Cano 1993. Eddy transfer processes in the atmospheric boundary layer. Atmospheric Environment 28:1275-1289.
Hydrology
Ahmad-Shah, A., and J. O. Rieley. 1989. Influence of tree canopies on the quantity of water and amount of chemical elements reaching the peat surface of a basin mire in the midlands of England. Journal of Ecology 77:357-370.
Anhuf, D., T. Motzer, R. Rollenbeck, B. Schröder, and J. Szarzynski. 1999. Water budget of the Suromoni Crane Site (Venezuela). Selbyana 20:179-185.
Calder, I. R., I. R. Wright, and D. Murdiyarso. 1986. A study of evaporation from tropical rain forest – West Java. Journal of Hydrology 89:13-31.
Dawson, T. E. 1999. Fog in the California Redwood forest: ecosystem inputs and use by plants. Oecologia 117:476-485.
Hancock, N. H., and J. M. Crowther. 1979. A technique for the direct measurement of water storage on a forest canopy. Journal of Hydrology 41:105-122.
Helvey, J. D., and J. H. Patric. 1965. Canopy and litter interception of rainfall by hardwoods of eastern United States. Water Resources Research 1:193-206.
Herwitz, S. R. 1985. Interception storage capacities of tropical rainforest canopy trees. Journal of Hydrology 77:237-252.
Hutchings, N. J., R. Milne, and J. M. Crowther. 1988. Canopy storage capacity and its vertical distribution in a Sitka spruce canopy. Journal of Hydrology 104:161-171.
Massman, W. J. 1980. Water storage on forest foliage: a general model. Water Resources Research 16:210-216.
Meinzer, F. C., J. L. Andrade, G. Goldstein, N. M. Holbrook, J. Cavelier, and S. J. Wright. 1999. Partitioning of soil water among canopy trees in a seasonally dry tropical forest. Oecologia 121:293-301.
Nakai, Y., T. Sakamoto, T. Terajima, K. Kitajima, and T. Shirai. 1999. Energy balance above a boreal coniferous forest: a difference in turbulent fluxes between snow-covered and snow-free canopies. Hydrological Processes 13:515-529.
Puckett, L. J. 1991. Spatial variablity and collector requirements for sampling throughfall volume and chemistry under a mixed-hardwood canopy. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 21:1581-1588.
Reynolds, B. K. 1984. An assessment of the spatial variation in the chemical composition of bulk precipitation within an upland catchment. Water Resources Research 20:733-735.
Rutter, A. J., and A. J. Morton. 1977. A predictive model of rainfall interception in forests III. Sensitivity of the model to stand parameters and meteorological variables. Journal of Applied Ecology 14:567-588.
Schmidt, R. A., and C. A. Troendle. 1989. Snowfall into a forest and clearing. Journal of Hydrology 110:335-348.
Veneklaas, E. J. 1990. Nutrient fluxes in bulk precipitation and throughfall in two montane tropical rain forests, Colombia. Journal of Ecology 78:974-992.
Zotz, G., S. Patiño, and M. T. Tyree. 1997. Water relations and hydraulic architecture of woody hemiepiphytes. Journal of Experimental Botany 48:1825-1833.
Invertebrates
Adis, J., Y. D. Lubin, and G. G. Montgomery. 1984. Arthropods from the canopy of inundated and terra firme forests near Manaus, Brazil, with critical considerations on the pyrethrum-fogging technique. Studies on Neotropical Fauna and Environment 19:223-226.
Basset, Y. 1992. Host specificity of arboreal and free-living insect herbivores in rain forests. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 47:115-133.
Basset, Y. 2001. Invertebrates in the canopy of tropical rain forests How much do we really know? Plant Ecology 153:87-107.
Cachan, P. 1964. Analyse statistique des pullulations de Scolytoidea mycétophages en forêt sempervirente de Côte d’Ivoire. Annales de la Faculté des Sciences, Université de Dakar 14:5-70.
Coley, P. D. 1980. Effects of leaf age and plant life history patterns on herbivory. Nature 284:545-546.
Compton, S. G., Ellwood, M. D. F., Davis, A. J., and Welch, K. 2000. The flight heights of chalcid wasps (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea) in a lowland Bornean rain forest: fig wasps are the high fliers. Biotropica 32:515-522.
DeVries, P. J., D. Murray, and R. Lande. 1997. Species diversity in vertical, horizontal, and temporal dimensions of a fruit-feeding butterfly community in an Ecuadorian rainforest. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 62:343-364.
Erwin, T. L. 1982. Tropical forests: their richness in Coleoptera and other arthropod species. The Coleopterists Bulletin 36:74-75.
Feeny, P. P. 1970. Seasonal changes in oak leaf tannins and nutrients as a cause of spring feeding by winter moth caterpillars. Ecology 51:565-581.
Grove, S. J. 2002. The influence of forest management history on the integrity of the saproxylic beetle fauna in an Australian lowland tropical rainforest. Biological Conservation 104:149-171.
Haddow, A. J., P. S. Corbet, and J. D. Gillett. 1961. Entomological studies from a high tower in Mpanga Forest, Uganda. I. Introduction. Transactions of the Royal Entomological Society of London 113:249-256.
Heatwole, H., M. D. Lowman, and K. L. Abbott. 1999. Grazing on Australian eucalypt leaves by insects. Selbyana 20:299-323.
Hunter, M. D. 1987. Opposing effects of spring defoliation on late season oak caterpillars. Ecological Entomology 12:373-382.
Lowman, M. D. 1984. An assessment of techniques for measuring herbivory: is rainforest defoliation more intense than we thought? Biotropica 16:264-268.
Majer, J. D., and H. F. Recher. 1988. Invertebrate communities on Western Australian eucalypts – a comparison of branch clipping and chemical knockdown procedures. Australian Journal of Ecology 13:269-278.
Mattson, W. J., and N. D. Addy. 1975. Phytophagous insects as regulators of forest primary productivity. Science 190:515-522.
Moran, V. C., and T. R. E. Southwood. 1982. The guild composition of arthropod communities in trees. Journal Animal Ecology 51:289- 306.
Nadkarni, N. M., and J. T. Longino. 1990. Invertebrates in canopy and ground organic matter in a neotropical montane forest, Costa Rica. Biotropica 22:286-289.
Novotny, V., Y. Bassett, S. E Miller, G. D. Weiblen, B. Bremer, L. Cized, and P. Drozd. 2002. Low host specificity of herbivorous insects in a tropical forest. Nature416:841-844.
Novotny, V., and Y. Basset. 2000. Rare species in communities of tropical insect herbivores: pondering the mystery of singletons. Oikos 89:564-572.
Ødegaard, F. 2000. The relative importance of trees versus lianas as hosts for phytophagous beetles (Coleoptera) in tropical forests. Journal of Biogeography.27:283-296.
Prinzing, A. 2001. Use of shifting microclimatic mosaics by arthropods on exposed tree trunks. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 94:210-218.
Recher, H. F., J. D. Majer, and S. Ganesh. 1996. Eucalypts, arthropods and birds: On the relationship between foliar nutrients and species richness. Forest Ecology and Management 85:177-195.
Reichle, D. E., R. A. Goldstein, R. I. Van Hook, and G. J. Dodson. 1973. Analysis of insect consumption in a forest canopy. Ecology 54:1076-1084.
Rodgers, D. J., and Kitching, R. L. 1998. Vertical stratification of rainforest collembolan (Collembola: Insecta) assemblages: description of ecological patterns and hypotheses concerning their generation. Ecography 21:392-400.
Schowalter, T. D., and Ganio. L. M. 1998. Vertical and seasonal variation in canopy arthropod communities in an old-growth conifer forest in Southwestern Washington, USA. Bulletin of Entomological Research 88:633-640.
Schowalter, T. D., W. W. Hargrove, and D. A. Crossley, Jr. 1986. Herbivory in forested ecosystems. Annual Review of Entomology 31:177-196.
Seastedt, T. R., D. A. Crossley, Jr., and W. W. Hargrove. 1983. The effects of low-level consumption by canopy arthropods on the growth and nutrient dynamics of black locust and red maple trees in the southern Appalachians. Ecology 64:1040-1048.
Southwood, T. R. E., and C. E. J. Kennedy. 1983. Trees as islands. Oikos 41: 359-37.
Stork, N. E. 1987. Arthropod faunal similarity of Bornean rain forest trees. Ecological Entomology 12:219-226.
Sutton, S. L., C. P. Ash, and A. Grundy. 1983. The vertical distribution of flying insects in the lowland rain forest of Panama, Papua New Guinea and Brunei. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 78:287-297.
Walter, D. E., and V. Behan-Pelletier. 1999. Mites in forest canopies: filling the size distribution shortfall. Annual Review Entomology 44:1-19.
Watt, A. D., N. E. Stork, C. McBeath, and G. L. Watson. 1997. Impact of forest management on insect abundance and damage in a lowland tropical forest in southern Cameroon. Journal of Applied Ecology 34:985-998.
Winchester, N. N., V. Behan-Pelletier, and R.A. Ring. 1999. Arboreal specificity, diversity and abundance of canopy-dwelling oribatid mites (Acari: Oribatida) Pedobiologia 43:391-400.
Light Transmission
Baars, R., and D. Kelly. 1996. Survival and growth responses of native and introduced vines in New Zealand to light availability. New Zealand Journal of Botany34:389-400.
Black, T. A., J. M. Chen, X. Lee, and R.M. Sagar. 1991. Characteristics of shortwave and longwave irradiances under a Douglas-fir forest stand. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 21:1020-1028.
Brooks, J. R., T. M. Hinckley, and D.G. Sprugel. 1994. Acclimation responses of mature Abies amabilis sun foliage to shading. Oecologia 100:316-324.
Brunner, A. 1998. A light model for spatially explicit forest stand models. Forest Ecology and Management 107:19-46.
Canham, C. D. W., D. Coates, P. Bartemucci, and S. Quaglia. 1999. Measurement and modeling of spatially explicit variation in light transmission through interior cedar-hemlock forests of British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 29:1775-1783.
de Castro, F. 2000. Light spectral composition in a tropical forest: measurements and model. Tree Physiology 20:49-56.
Hutchison, B. A., and D. R. Matt. 1977. The distribution of solar radiation within a deciduous forest. Ecological Monographs 47:185-207.
Kinerson, R. S. 1973. Fluxes of visible and net radiation within a forest canopy. Journal of Applied Ecology 10:657-660.
Kull, O., M. Broadmeadow, B. Kruijt, and P. Meir. 1999. Light distribution and foliage structure in an oak canopy. Trees 14:55-64.
Kuuluvainen, T., and T. Pukkala. 1987. Effect of crown shape and tree distribution on the spatial distribution of shade. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 40:215-231.
Niinemets, Ü., O. Kull, and J. D. Tenhunen. 1999. Variability in leaf morphology and chemical composition as a function of canopy light environment in coexisting deciduous trees. International Journal of Plant Sciences 160:837-848.
Parker, G. G., M. M. Davis, and S. M. Chapotin. 2002. Canopy light transmittance in Doulgas-fir-western hemlock stands. Tree Physiology 22:147-157.
Wang, Y. P. 2000. A refinement of the two-leaf model for calculating canopy photosynthesis. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 101:143-150.
Wilson, J. W. 1965. Stand structure and light penetration. Journal of Applied Ecology 2:383-390.
Forest Management
Culf, A. D., G. Fisch, and M. G. Hodnett. 1995. The albedo of Amazonian forest and ranch land. Journal of Climate 8:1544-1554.
Dettki, H., and P.-A. Esseen. 1998. Epiphytic macrolichens in managed and natural forest landscapes: a comparison at two spatial scales. Ecography 21:613-624.
Humphrey, J. W., C. Hawes, A. J. Peace, R. Ferris-Kaan, and M. R. Jukes. 1999. Relationships between insect diversity and habitat characteristics in plantation forests. Forest Ecology and Management 113:11-21.
Imbeau, L., and A. Desrochers. 2002. Area sensitivity and edge avoidance: the case of the Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides tridactylus) in a managed forest. Forest Ecology and Management 164:249-256.
Johns, A. D. 1988. Effects of ‘selective’ timber extraction on rain forest structure and composition and some consequences for frugivores and folivores. Biotropica20:31-37.
Kellomäki, S., P. Oker-Blom, E. Valtonen, and H. Vaisanen. 1989. Structural development of Scots pine stands with varying initial density: effect of pruning on branchiness of wood. Forest Ecology and Management 27:219-233.
Maguire, D. A., J. A. Kershaw-Jr., and D. W. Hann. 1991. Predicting the effects of silvicultural regime on branch size and crown wood core in Douglas-fir. Forest Science 37:1409-1428.
Menalled, F. D., M. J. Kelty, and J. J. Ewel. 1998. Canopy development in tropical plantations: a comparison of species mixture and monocultures. Forest Ecology and Management 104:249-263.
Noon, B. R., and K. S. McKelvey. 1996. Management of the spotted owl: a case history in conservation biology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 27:135-162.
Putz, F. E., G. M. Blate, K. H. Redford, R. Fimbel, and J. Robinson. 2001. Tropical forest management and conservation of biodiversity: an overview. Conservation Biology 15:7-20.
Romero, C. 1999. Reduced-impact logging effects on commercial non-vascular pendant epiphyte biomass in a tropical montane forest in Costa Rica. Forest Ecology and Management 118:117-125.
Schowalter, T. D. 1995. Canopy arthropod communities in relation to forest age and alternative harvest practices in western Oregon. Forest Ecology and Management 78:115-125.
Sillett, S. C. 1995. Branch epiphyte assemblages in the forest interior and on the clearcut edge of a 700-year-old Douglas fir canopy in western Oregon. Bryologist98:301-312.
Vidal, E., J. Johns, J. J. Gerwing, P. Barreto, and C. Uhl. 1997. Vine management for reduced-impact logging in eastern Amazonia. Forest Ecology and Management 98:105-114.
Webb, J. K., and R. Shine. 1997. Out on a limb: conservation implications of tree-hollow use by a threatened snake species (Hoplocephalus bungaroides: Serpentes, Elapidae). Biological Conservation 81:21-33.
Micrometeorology
Chen, J., S. C. Saunders, T. R. Crow, R. J. Naiman, K. D. Brosofske, G. D. Mroz, B. L. Brookshire, and J. F. Franklin. 1999. Microclimate in forest ecosystem and landscape ecology. BioScience 49:288-297.
Fuentes, J. D., and D. Wang. 1999. On the seasonality of isoprene emissions from a mixed temperate forest. Ecological Applications 9:1118-1131.
Grace, J. C., J. Lloyd, J. McIntyre, A. Miranda, P. Meir, H. Miranda, J. Moncrieff, J. Massheder, I. R. Wright, and J. H. C. Gash. 1995. Fluxes of carbon dioxide and water vapour over an undisturbed tropical forest in south-west Amazonia. Global Change Biology 1:1-12.
Hörmann, G., A. Branding, T. Clemen, M. Herbst, A. Hinrichs, and F. Thamm. 1996. Calculation and simulation of wind controlled canopy interception of a beech forest in northern Germany. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 79:131-148.
Lee, X., T. A. Black, G. den Hartog, H. H. Neumann, Z. Nesic, and J. Olejnik. 1996. Carbon dioxide exchange and nocturnal processes over a mixed deciduous forest. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 81:13-29.
Roberts, J. M., O. M. R. Cabral, G. Fisch, L. C. B. Molion, C. J. Moore, and W. J. Shuttleworth. 1993. Transpiration from an Amazonian rainforest calculated from stomatal conductance measurements. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 65:175-196.
Watanabe, T,. and K. Mizutani. 1996. Model study on micrometeorological aspects of rainfall interception over an evergreen broad-leaved forest. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 80:195-214.
Weathers, K. C., G. M. Lovett, and G. E. Likens. 1995. Cloud deposition to a spruce forest edge. Atmospheric Environment 29:665-672.
Modelling
Anderson, M. C., J. M. Norman, T. P. Meyers, and G. R. Diak. 1999. An analytical model for estimating canopy transpiration and carbon assimilation fluxes based on canopy light-use efficiency. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 101:265-289.
Asner, G. P., and C. A. Wessman. 1997. Scaling PAR absorption from the leaf to landscape level in spatially heterogeneous ecosystems. Ecological Modelling103:81-97.
Calder, I. R. 1977. A model of transpiration and interception loss from a spruce forest in Plynlimon, Central Wales. Journal of Hydrology 33:247-265.
Chiba, Y. 1998. Architectural analysis of relationship between biomass and basal area based on pipe model theory. Ecological Modelling 108:219-225.
de Castro, F., and N. Fetcher. 1998. Three dimensional model of the interception of light by a canopy. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 90:215-233.
Dolman, A. J. 1987. Summer and winter rainfall interception in an oak forest. Predictions with an analytical and a numerical simulation model. Journal of Hydrology90:1-9.
Grant, R. F., and I. A. Nalder. 2000. Climate change effects on net carbon exchange of a boreal aspen-hazelnut forest: estimates from the ecosystem model ecosys. Global Change Biology 6:183-200.
Kinerson-Jr., R., and L. J. Fritschen. 1971. Modelling a coniferous forest canopy. Agricultural Meteorology 8:439-445.
Kuuluvainen, T., and T. Pukkala. 1989. Simulation of within-tree and between-tree shading of direct radiation in a forest canopy: effect of crown shape and sun elevation. Ecological Modelling 49:89-100.
Leathwick, J. R., and G. M. Rogers. 1996. Modelling relationships between environment and canopy composition in secondary vegetation in central North Island, New Zealand. New Zealand Journal of Ecology 20:147-161.
Lindenmayer, D. B., and H. P. Possingham. 1995. Modelling the impacts of wildfire on the viability of metapopulations of the endangered Australian species of arboreal marsupial, Leadbeater’s possum. Forest Ecology and Management 74:197-222.
Liu, S. 1997. A new model for the prediction of rainfall interception in forest canopies. Ecological Modelling 99:151-159.
Maguire, D. A., M. Moeur, and W. S. Bennett. 1993. Models for describing basal diameter and vertical distribution of primary branches in young Douglas-fir. Forest Ecology and Management 63:23-55.
Pearce, A. J., and L. K. Rowe. 1981. Rainfall interception in a multi-storied, evergreen mixed forest: estimates using Gash’s analytical model. Journal of Hydrology49:341-353.
Vose, J. M., and P. V. Bolstad. 1999. Challenges to modelling NPP in diverse eastern deciduous forests: species-level comparisons of foliar respiration responses to temperature and nitrogen. Ecological Modelling 122:165-174.
Wang, Y. P., and P. G. Jarvis. 1990. Description and validation of an array model – MAESTRO. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 51:257-280.
Williams, M. 1996. A three-dimensional model of forest development and competition. Ecological Modelling 89:73-98.
Non-Vascular Epiphytes
Barkman, J. J. 1958. Phytosociology and ecology of cryptogamic epiphytes. Van Gorcum, Assen, Germany.
Coxson, D. S. 1991. Nutrient release from epiphytic bryophytes in tropical montane rain forest (Guadeloupe). Canadian Journal of Botany 69:2122-2129.
Freiberg, E. 1998. Microclimatic parameters influencing nitrogen fixation in the phyllosphere in a Costa Rican premontane rain forest. Oecologia 117:9-18.
Gradstein, S. R., and T. Pócs. 1989. Biogeography of tropical rain forest bryophytes. Pages 311-325 in H. Lieth and M. J. A. Werge, editors. Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems 14B. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
McCune, B., R. Rosentreter, J. M. Ponzetti, and D. C. Shaw. 2000. Epiphyte habitats in an old conifer forest in Western Washington, USA. Bryologist 103:417-427.
Pócs, T. 1982. Tropical forest bryophytes. Pages 59-104 in A. J. E. Smith, editor. Bryophyte ecology. Columbia University Press, New York, New York, USA.
Rhoades, F. M. 1995. Nonvascular epiphytes in forest canopies: worldwide distribution, abundance, and ecological roles. Pages 353-408 in M. D. Lowman and N. M. Nadkarni, editors. Forest canopies. Academic Press, San Diego, CA.
Sillett, S. C., B. McCune, J. E. Peck, T. R. Rambo, and A. Ruchty. 2000. Dispersal limitations of epiphytic lichens result in species dependent on old-growth forests. Ecological Applications 10:789-799.
Wolf, J. H. D. 1994. Factors controlling the distribution of vascular and non-vascular epiphytes in the northern Andes. Vegetatio 112:15-28.
Wolf, J. H. D. 1995. Non vascular epiphyte diversity patterns in the canopy of an upper montane rain forest, Central Cordillera, Colombia. Selbyana 16:185-195.
Nutrient Cycling
Attiwill, P. M. 1966. The chemical composition of rainwater in relation to cycling of nutrients in mature eucalyptus forest. Plant and Soil 24:390-406.
Baldocchi, D. D. 1988. A multi-layer model for estimating sulfur dioxide deposition to a deciduous oak forest canopy. Atmospheric Environment 22:869-884.
Bellot, J., A. Àvila, and A. Rodrigeo. 1999. Throughfall and stemflow. Ecological Studies 137:209-222.
Binkley, D., and P. Högberg. 1997. Does atmospheric deposition of nitrogen threaten Swedish forests? Forest Ecology and Management 92:119-152.
Bredemeier, M., K. Blanck, A. Dohrenbusch, N. Lamersdorf, A. C. Meyer, D. Murach, A. Parth, and Y.-J. Xu. 1998. The Solling roof project – site characteristics, experiments and results. Forest Ecology and Management 101:281-293.
Duquesnay, A., J. L. Dupouey, A. Clement, E. Ulrich, and F. LeTacon. 2000. Spatial and temporal variability of foliar mineral concentration in beech (Fagus sylvatica) stands in northeastern France. Tree Physiology 20:13-22.
Elbert, W., M. R. Hoffmann, M. Krämer, G. Schmitt, and M. O. Andreae. 2000. Control of solute concentrations in cloud and fog water by liquid water content. Atmospheric Environment 34:1109-1122.
Garten-Jr., C. T., A. B. Schwab, and T. L. Shirshac. 1998. Foliar retention of 15N tracers: implications for net canopy exchange in low- and high-elevation forest ecosystems. Forest Ecology and Management 103:211-216.
Heath, J. A., and B. J. Huebert. 1999. Cloudwater deposition as a source of fixed nitrogen in a Hawaiian montane forest. Biogeochemistry 44:119-134.
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Plant Physiology
Aber, J. D., P. B. Reichand, and M. L. Goulden. 1996. Extrapolating leaf CO 2 exchange to the canopy: a generalized model forest photosynthesis compared with measurements by eddy correlation. Oecologia 106:257-265.
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Gauslaa, Y., and K. A. Solhaug. 1996. Differences in the susceptibility to light stress between epiphytic lichens of ancient and young boreal forest stands. Functional Ecology 10:344-354.
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Remote Sensing
Arseneault, D., N. Villeneuve, C. Boismenu, Y. LeBlanc, and J. Deshaye. 1997. Estimating lichen biomass and caribou grazing on the wintering grounds of northern Québec: an application of fire history and LANDSAT data. Journal of Applied Ecology 34:65-78.
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Lathrop-Jr., R., G. Pierce, and L. L. Pierce. 1991. Ground-based canopy transmittance and satellite remotely sensed measurements for estimation of coniferous forest canopy structure. Remote Sensing of Environment 36:179-188.
Lefsky, M. A., W. B. Cohen, S. A. Acker, G. G. Parker, T. A. Spies, and D. J. Harding. 1999. Lidar remote sensing of the canopy structure and biophysical properties of Douglas-fir western hemlock forests. Remote Sensing of Environment 70:339-361.
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Research Equipment and Methodology
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Canopy Structure
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Tree Architecture
Becker, P., F. C. Meinzer, and S. D. Wullschleger. 2000. Hydraulic limitation of tree height: a critique. Functional Ecology 14:4-11.
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Vascular Plants
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Griffiths, H., and K. Maxwell. 1999. In memory of C. S. Pittendrigh: Does exposure in forest canopies relate to photoprotective strategies in epiphytic bromeliads? Functional Ecology 13:15-23.
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Vertebrates
Dial, R., and J. Roughgarden. 1995. Experimental removal of insectivores from rain forest canopy: direct and indirect effects. Ecology 76:1821-1834.
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Nadkarni, N. M., and T. J. Matelson. 1989. Bird use of epiphyte resources in neotropical trees. Condor 91:891-907.
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